This comprehensive text offers a critical examination of the Roman Catholic Church, tracing its historical development and various doctrines. It scrutinizes the evolution of papal authority, from early councils that denied the Bishop of Rome supremacy to later periods where popes asserted vast temporal and spiritual power, exemplified by their actions regarding England and Ireland. The source further explores specific Catholic practices and beliefs, such as baptism, confession, celibacy of the clergy, purgatory, indulgences, relic worship, saint and image veneration, and the role of the Eucharist, often contrasting them with early Christian traditions or Protestant views. Additionally, it highlights the Church's stance on education, freedom of the press, and its use of the Inquisition, concluding with a chapter on the Jesuit order and the sincerity of Catholic priests.
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Frequently Asked Questions
What was the position of early Church councils and prominent figures on the authority of the Bishop of Rome and the structure of the Church?
Early Church councils and influential figures generally did not support the idea of the Bishop of Rome having supreme authority over all other churches. The Council of Nice, for instance, determined that if a bishop was ordained without the consent of the Metropolitan, he ought not to be a bishop, and it authorized patriarchs of Eastern provinces to perpetuate their dignity. This indicates a system of regional authority rather than a centralized one under Rome. Similarly, the Council of Chalcedon decreed that Constantinople, being honored as a seat of government and senate, should enjoy equal rank with ancient Rome in ecclesiastical matters, having the second place after it. This explicitly challenges the notion of Rome's sole supremacy.
Prominent Church fathers also echoed these sentiments. Cyprian believed that no bishop should assume authority over other bishops or their churches, and that each bishop was accountable to God for their own conduct, emphasizing the indivisible nature of episcopal authority. Augustine, a highly influential figure, denounced appeals from African synods or bishops to any authority outside of their own church. Jerome stated that a presbyter and a bishop are of the same order, and that before disagreements arose, churches were governed by a common council of presbyters, with the establishment of a single bishop over others being a later development to prevent schisms. Even Gregory the Great, often considered one of the first popes to use the title "servant of servants," rejected the appellation of "Universal Bishop," stating that it was an attempt to subject all members of the Church to one person, likening it to Lucifer's ambition to be above all. These views collectively suggest an early Church structure that was more collegial and decentralized, with significant regional autonomy and a shared understanding of episcopal authority, rather than one dominated by a single, supreme pontiff in Rome.
How did the concept of the Pope's authority evolve, particularly concerning secular power and infallibility?
The concept of the Pope's authority evolved significantly, moving beyond spiritual leadership to encompass substantial secular and even infallible claims. The "Bull of Adrian" illustrates this shift clearly. In this document, Pope Adrian IV granted King Henry II permission to invade Ireland, asserting that "all the islands upon which Christ, the Sun of Justice, has shone, and which have received lessons in the Christian faith, are SUBJECT TO SAINT PETER AND THE HOLY ROMAN CHURCH." This demonstrates a claim of temporal dominion, allowing the Pope to "give away an island" even if no Roman standard had ever been planted there. This suggests an understanding of papal authority that transcended spiritual boundaries and extended to the right to grant temporal rule over lands.
Furthermore, the source highlights the Pope's attempt to annul Magna Carta, a document designed to limit the power of the English king. The Pope, "under intermination of anathema," forbade King John from observing the charter and the barons from demanding its observance, declaring it "irritating entirely and quashing." This action underscores the Pope's assertion of supreme authority over secular rulers and national laws, indicating a belief in his power to invalidate agreements that he deemed detrimental to the "majesty of the Church."
The First Vatican Council in 1870 solidified the doctrine of papal infallibility, stating that when the Roman Pontiff "speaks ex cathedra, that is, when, in discharge of the office of Pastor and Teacher of all Christians, by virtue of his supreme Apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, he possesses... that infallibility." This dogma means such definitions are "irreformable of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church." This was a monumental shift, elevating papal pronouncements on faith and morals to an unquestionable status, effectively seeking to "coerce the minds of men 'into subjection to every papal pronouncement in matters of religion, morals, politics, and social science.'"
What were the early views on confession and the role of priests in the remission of sins?
Early views on confession and the role of priests in the remission of sins differed significantly from later established practices. The source indicates that in the early Church, confession was often seen as a private matter between an individual and God, rather than a mandatory public or priestly ritual. Chrysostom, for example, is quoted as saying: "I do not compel thee to go into the public theatre, and take many witnesses; confess thy sins in private to me alone, that I may heal thy wound, and deliver thee from thy grief." This suggests a pastoral role for the priest, offering guidance and solace, but without the emphasis on a formal, sacramentally required confession to a human intermediary. His commentary on "Let a man examine himself" further emphasizes self-examination rather than external scrutiny.
Ambrose also highlights the internal aspect of confession, stating that "tears wash away the guilt which shame prevents being confessed by word of mouth." Augustine, in his Confessions, expresses a sentiment of not needing men to hear his confessions "as if they could heal all my diseases." Laurentius of Novara explicitly states that after baptism, God "hath put remission within thy own power, that thou needest not to seek a priest when necessity requires; but thou thyself, when thou blushest to tell it to man, groan in thy heart, and let God hear thy groanings." These perspectives strongly suggest that forgiveness was primarily sought directly from God, often through inner repentance and prayer, with the priest's role being more of a spiritual guide and a witness to one's internal transformation, rather than the sole or necessary dispenser of absolution.
How did the Council of Trent define and reinforce the sacrament of penance and the role of priestly absolution?
The Council of Trent significantly defined and reinforced the sacrament of penance and the role of priestly absolution, establishing a system distinct from earlier practices. The Council decreed that private confession to a priest was not merely a human invention but "necessary by divine right" for the remission of sins. It stated that all mortal sins, of which memory could be had, must be confessed individually.
Furthermore, Trent asserted that the priest's absolution was not merely a declaration of forgiveness by God, but a judicial act. The canons state: "If anyone shall say that the sacramental absolution of the priest is not a judicial act, but only a bare ministry of pronouncing and declaring sins remitted to the confitent, provided only he believes himself to be absolved, or that the priest absolves not seriously, but in joke; or shall say that the confession of the penitent is not required, that the priest may absolve him: let him be anathema." This emphasizes the priest's indispensable and active role in granting forgiveness, rather than simply announcing it.
The Council also specified the form of the sacrament of penance as "I absolve thee," highlighting the priest's direct action in conveying God's grace. It further clarified that priests, "as ministers of God, truly absolve," acting as Christ's representatives in the administration of the sacrament. Additionally, the Council mandated secrecy in confession, ensuring that "no one at all, neither by messenger, nor by letters, since by that method nothing can now be done secretly, is it permitted to confess sins." These decrees solidified the priest's central and indispensable role in the sacrament of penance, making private, detailed confession to a priest a divinely mandated requirement for the remission of sins.
What is the stance on Mary and saints in the Roman Church, and how does it contrast with earlier Christian perspectives?
The Roman Church, as depicted in the source, holds a significantly elevated view of Mary and the saints, contrasting sharply with earlier Christian perspectives. The source presents multiple prayers to Mary, such as "Hail Mary! thou hope of Christians," and "O my Sovereign, protect me in my combats, fortify me in my weakness." These prayers attribute to Mary roles of intercession, protection, and even hope, suggesting a reliance on her for spiritual aid. The source also notes that the Council of Trent mandates that "images of Christ, of the Virgin Mother of God, and of other saints are to be had and retained in temples, and that due honor and veneration be imparted to them." This points to the veneration of images as a means of honoring the prototypes they represent.
This emphasis on Mary and saints contrasts with descriptions of earlier Christian figures and biblical accounts. The source highlights Christ's response when told his mother and brothers were outside: "Who is my mother, and who are my brothers? and, extending his hand to his disciples, he said: Behold my mother and my brothers; for whosoever shall do the will of my Father, who is in the heavens, he is my brother and sister and mother." This suggests that Christ prioritized spiritual kinship over familial ties, downplaying any special intercessory role for his mother.
Furthermore, the source explicitly mentions the biblical teaching that "there is one Mediator of God and men, the man Christ Jesus." This directly contradicts the idea of numerous mediators, including Mary and saints, between God and humanity. The prayers to Mary and the veneration of saints in the Roman Church, as described, represent a significant departure from an earlier, more Christ-centric approach to prayer and mediation, where direct access to God through Jesus Christ was paramount.
What is the Roman Catholic Church's stance on the veneration of relics and images?
The Roman Catholic Church's stance, as presented, strongly supports the veneration of relics and images. The Council of Trent, according to the source, mandates that "the holy bodies of the holy martyrs and others living with Christ, who were living members of Christ, and the temple of the Holy Spirit, to be raised by him to eternal life and glorified by the faithful, are to be venerated." This indicates that physical remains of saints are considered worthy of veneration, not merely as memorials but as sacred objects due to their past connection to Christ and the Holy Spirit.
Regarding images, the Council of Trent decreed that "images of Christ, of the Virgin Mother of God, and of other saints are to be had and retained in temples, and that due honor and veneration be imparted to them." Crucially, this veneration is not directed at the image itself as possessing divinity or power. Instead, the honor shown to the images "is referred to the prototypes which they represent." This means that the act of venerating an image is understood as an act of honoring the person depicted in the image. The source also mentions a canon from a council stating that if a church does not contain relics of saints, and the customary prayers and anointing are not performed, the church is to be torn down, further underscoring the importance of relics in the sanctity of a church building.
How does the Roman Church approach the accessibility and interpretation of scripture for its followers?
The Roman Church, through decrees of the Council of Trent, restricted the accessibility and interpretation of scripture for its followers, contrasting with a broader view of scripture as accessible to all. The source details specific rules regarding the reading of biblical texts in the vernacular (common) language. It states that bishops could grant permission for individuals to read vernacular Bibles only if they were deemed capable of benefiting from such reading without incurring "damage, but rather an increase of faith and piety." This permission had to be in writing.
Furthermore, the decree stipulates severe penalties for those who presumed to read or possess vernacular Bibles without such authorization: they "could not obtain absolution for their sins unless the Bibles were first returned to the ordinary." Booksellers who sold or otherwise made available vernacular Bibles to unauthorized persons would forfeit the books' price for pious uses, and buyers, readers, or printers could be punished at the discretion of bishops or inquisitors. This control extended to importing books into a city, requiring notification to designated persons.
The Council of Trent explicitly prohibited the reading or possession of "books of heretics or the writings of any author, condemned and prohibited for heresy or on suspicion of false dogma." Those who read or possessed such books incurred "the sentence of excommunication immediately." This highly regulated system demonstrates a strong emphasis on controlling the narrative and preventing interpretations that might deviate from the official Church doctrine, rather than encouraging widespread, independent scriptural study among the laity.
What is the role of gifts, grants, and monastic foundations in the remission of sins within the Roman Church's teachings?
Within the Roman Church's teachings, particularly as evidenced by historical practices and papal bulls, gifts, grants, and the establishment of monastic foundations were presented as means to secure the remission of sins. The source explicitly states that "the gates of heaven seemed open for all who would enrich the clergy and the Church." This indicates a strong belief that financial contributions and property endowments to the Church could directly impact an individual's spiritual standing and facilitate the forgiveness of sins.
Numerous examples from the source illustrate this:
Pope Adrian's letter to King Offa grants him permission to build a monastery "for the remission of your sins," and encourages him to confer possessions and privileges on the monastery of St. Alban upon his return home.
Bertidphy, King of Mercia, gives a charter to an abbey for "the remission of our sins, and those of our whole race (family) both living and dead."
King John's charter, which he "makes a sacrifice for the remission of his sins," gives his kingdom to the Pope.
These instances demonstrate a clear link between material donations and spiritual benefits, suggesting that such acts were considered a form of penance or satisfaction for sins. The belief was that by enriching the Church and its institutions, individuals could atone for their transgressions and secure divine favor, extending even to their ancestors and descendants. This practice effectively incentivized large-scale endowments and grants to the Church, integrating financial contributions directly into the system of salvation and sin remission.
Briefing Document: The Papal System - A Historical Sketch of the Church of Rome
This document provides a detailed briefing on "The Papal System: From its Origin to the Present Time," a historical sketch of the Church of Rome, authored by William Cathcart. Published by Cathcart and Turner in Philadelphia in 1872, this work is dedicated to "The Friends of Protestant Christianity" and "The Candid Members of the Catholic Church".
Purpose and Scope of the Work
The author, William Cathcart, Pastor of the Second Baptist Church, Philadelphia, outlines several key objectives for this treatise:
To sketch the birth, growth, and maturity of every Romish belief and practice.
To furnish a contrast between papal and ancient Christianity.
To present all decrees, canons, and other testimonies in their original languages and in translations.
To show the bearings of "popery" upon cherished institutions.
To describe the present observances of the Catholic Church.
To provide reliable, and generally Romish, authorities for every important statement, with page, book, or chapter references for verification.
The work is described as "entirely undenominational" and is intended for the "mass of English readers" rather than the learned. The Latin and Greek extracts are included to "furnish proofs of the truth of all leading declarations," which can be easily translated.
Key Themes and Concepts
The book delves into numerous aspects of the Papal System, often contrasting them with earlier Christian practices and doctrines.
I. Papal Supremacy and Early Church Independence
The source extensively argues that papal supremacy was not recognized in the early centuries of Christianity.
Ancient British and Irish Churches: Early Christians in Britain and Ireland, including figures like St. Patrick and Columba, maintained independence from Rome for centuries. St. Patrick is presented as having "no connection with Rome" and inventing the Irish alphabet, fostering a love for learning and Sacred Scriptures in monastic schools. Irish monasteries served as "Bible Schools" that "rejected the Pope". Bishop Dagan of Ireland notably refused to eat with a "Popish missionary". Columbanus, an Irish monk, even challenged Pope Gregory the Great regarding erroneous practices, stating "a living dog may be better than a dead lion". The ancient British Church, centered around the monastery of Bangor, refused to recognize the Pope's authority or his archbishop, Augustine, in the 7th century, leading to its eventual suppression. Similarly, the ancient Scotch Church, influenced by Columba, loved the Scriptures and resisted Romish customs and papal ceremonies.
Early Councils and Papal Jurisdiction: The source highlights that for seven centuries, councils repudiated papal jurisdiction.
Council of Nice (A.D. 325): This first great synod was called by Emperor Constantine, not the Pontiff, and the Pope's delegates had no important place. The Emperor managed the council. The sixth Canon of Nice is presented as a major challenge to papal jurisdiction, granting bishops of Alexandria and Antioch the same authority in their provinces as the Bishop of Rome had in his see, implying the Roman Pontiff was "simply on a level with his brother bishops in the East". Hosius, Bishop of Cordova, is identified as the leading bishop of the Christian world at this time and the probable first officer of the Council of Nice, not the Pope.
Council of Sardica (A.D. 347): Convoked by Emperors, with Hosius as President, it was not a general Council. The canons gave the Bishop of Rome limited authority to review a bishop's case, not to judge it directly in Rome, and to order a new decision by local bishops. This discipline is explicitly stated as "new," having "never been heard of in the Christian Church till the Convention at Sardica".
Council of Constantinople (A.D. 381): Summoned by Emperor Theodosius, it conferred dignity on the See of Constantinople, equating its ecclesiastical standing with Rome's due to its imperial status. The Roman pontiff had no role in calling, presiding, or inspiring its canons.
Council of Ephesus (A.D. 431): Summoned by Emperor Theodosius, with Cyril representing Pope Celestine, Cyril was effectively the master of the council without Celestine's aid.
Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451): Summoned by Emperor Marcian, it consisted of 630 bishops. While Pope Leo urged its calling, he had no authority to issue the summons. The 28th Canon of Chalcedon explicitly elevated Constantinople to equal authority with old Rome in ecclesiastical matters, based on both being imperial cities, directly challenging Rome's primacy.
Equality of Bishops and Presbyters: The source argues that presbyters and bishops were originally the same officers. This is supported by scriptural references (Acts xx. 17, 28; Titus i. 5, 7; 1 Peter v. 1, 2) and the opinions of early Church Fathers like Tertullian, Jerome, Chrysostom, and Augustine, who viewed a bishop as the "highest priest" or "first presbyter," a dignity conferred by the Church for harmony, not by Christ. Even modern scholarship is cited as agreeing that the names originally described the same ecclesiastic.
The Church Built on Peter: The source contends that the doctrine of Peter being the "rock" on which the Church is built, and the Pope succeeding him as master, was prominently announced for the first time by Pope Leo the Great's representatives at the Council of Chalcedon. It argues that Greek word "petros" (Peter) is not the same as "petra" (rock), with "petra" referring to Peter's confession of faith. This interpretation is supported by Chrysostom and Theodoret. The "keys of the kingdom of heaven" given to Peter are described as conferring special honor but no particular power beyond opening the gospel kingdom to Jews and Gentiles (Acts 2, 10). The passage emphasizing Peter's primacy is shown as used by Pope Leo to assert supremacy, and by King Oswy to justify submission to Rome.
Papal Ascendancy through Secular Power and Fraud:
Peter as a Deity/Demon: Popes used the figure of St. Peter to inspire fear and obedience, as seen in the story of Laurentius whipping Eadbald into submission through a vision of Peter, or Pope Vitalian's charter threatening excommunication via Peter's sword. Pepin and Charlemagne's reverence for St. Peter also aided papal authority.
Grant of Universal Bishopric: Pope Boniface III (A.D. 609) obtained the title of "universal bishop" from Emperor Phocas, an act seen as a significant step towards papal sovereignty.
The Pallium: This garment, initially a token of favor, became an "indispensable title" for episcopal office from the eighth century, effectively binding metropolitans to papal authority.
Pepin and the Papal States: Pepin's reconquest of territories from the Lombards (A.D. 755) and his declaration of fighting for the "Patrimony of St. Peter" significantly contributed to the Pope's temporal power.
False Decretals (Isidorean Decretals): In the 9th century, a vast collection of forgeries, falsely attributed to early Roman bishops, appeared in Western Gaul. These "Isidorean Decretals" were used to elevate papal power, particularly by asserting papal authority over the keys and the power to exclude from communion ("no speech could be held with an excommunicated man"), which became part of Church law.
Donations and Grants for Sin Remission: Kings and nobles throughout history (e.g., Ethelbald, Offa, Ethelwulf, King John) made grants of land, money, and privileges to the Church and monasteries for the "remission of their sins," demonstrating the Church's financial gain through the promotion of such doctrines. This practice is asserted to continue in the modern Catholic Church, with money being exchanged for masses to release souls from purgatory.
Deposition of Kings: Popes claimed and exercised the power to depose monarchs. Gregory VII. deposed Henry IV.. Innocent III. forced King John of England to surrender his crown and kingdom to the Pope (1213), absolved his subjects from allegiance, and published a crusade against him. Paul III. excommunicated Henry VIII. and Pius V. excommunicated Queen Elizabeth, absolving their subjects from allegiance and declaring forfeiture of their kingdoms. This power is presented as a "universal tyranny".
II. Sacraments and Doctrines
The source provides a critical analysis of various Catholic sacraments and core doctrines, often highlighting their perceived departures from "ancient Christianity."
Baptism: Early Church baptism involved sponsors, anointing with oil, breathing upon the candidate, and giving consecrated salt or milk and honey. The early fathers, like Justin Martyr and Tertullian, attributed a "miraculous power" to baptism, linking it to regeneration and forgiveness of sins, a concept the source critiques as "unscriptural". The source notes that the Council of Trent allows simple water for baptism in necessity, but traditionally adds "holy chrism". It controversially states that "a woman may baptize" in necessity, and even "Jews, to infidels, and to heretics" can baptize if they intend to perform what the Catholic Church effects. The canons of Trent on baptism declare it "necessary to salvation" and affirm the validity of baptism even when performed by "heretics" with proper intention, thereby binding all baptized Protestants to the Church of Rome's precepts.
Confirmation: Its commencement is noted with Tertullian and Basil. Modern Romish confirmation involves a form of words, oil and balsam, and sponsors, intended to make the confirmed a "perfect soldier of Christ". The source claims the Catholic Church cites Acts viii. 14-18 for the laying on of hands for the Holy Spirit, but argues this refers to miraculous powers, not confirmation.
The Lord's Supper, the Eucharist, the Mass:
Transubstantiation: The doctrine that the bread and wine literally become the body and blood of Christ is traced to Paschasius Radbert in the 9th century, a novelty that initially met opposition. It was formally given "legal place" by the Fourth Lateran Council (A.D. 1215), declaring Christ is truly, really, and substantially present as a "propitiatory sacrifice" for the living and the dead. The Council of Trent affirmed that "Christ entire is contained" under each species and every particle. The source rejects the literal interpretation of "This is my body," arguing it leads to "sacred cannibalism" and that Christ's words to Peter "Go behind me, Satan" must also be taken literally, making Peter "the chief of devils".
Worship of the Eucharist: The Council of Trent decreed that the consecrated host should receive the "same worship which is due to the true God" and can be carried in procession. The source describes a Corpus Christi procession in Spain where soldiers kneeled to the moving shrine.
Half Communion: The Council of Constance (1414) was the first to withhold the chalice from the laity, a change widely disliked. Popes Gelasius and Leo the Great are cited as having previously denounced half-communion as "sacrilege". Despite demands at Trent for the cup, the Council confirmed the practice of communion under the species of bread only, attributing the change to "just causes and reasons".
Priest's Power: The source highlights the belief that a wicked priest, even in mortal sin, can change the bread and wine into Christ's body and blood, and that by the words "Do this in commemoration of me," Christ gave apostles and their successors the power to effect this change.
The Confessional (Sacrament of Penance): This is deemed the "chief executive of the papal system".
History: Secret confession to a priest for absolution was "entirely unknown in the early Churches". Chrysostom, Basil, Ambrose, and Laurentius are quoted as advocating for private confession to God or public penance, not secret auricular confession to a priest. Public penance for notorious sins involved prostration, sackcloth, and public weeping. Penance was rarely permitted twice after baptism. The office of "penitentiary confessor" for public sins was abolished by Bishop Nectarius and subsequently by other bishops. Auricular confession was "established" by the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), which mandated confession of all sins to one's priest at least once a year.
Modern Practice: The Council of Trent decreed that contrition, confession, and satisfaction are necessary for remission of sins, and that sacramental confession to a priest alone is "necessary to salvation" by divine authority. The priest's absolution is described as a "judicial act" by God's minister. The Catechism of Trent stresses secrecy in the confessional and prohibits confession by letter. It requires answering all questions put by the priest, no matter how "shocking, shameful, frivolous, frightful". The source exposes the "indecent questions" found in Catholic prayer books for self-examination before confession, particularly regarding the sixth and ninth commandments. It notes the existence of "Deaf Confessors" in Spain who would act as if deaf, avoiding questions but still receiving confessions. The confessional is vehemently condemned as a "modern innovation," an "instrument of oppression," and "the most odious system of espionage".
Extreme Unction: The Catholic Church's practice of anointing the sick is said to be based on Mark vi. 13 and James v. 14, 15, but the source argues these verses describe miraculous healing, not a sacrament for the dying. It was formally adopted as a sacrament by the Council of Florence (1439). The Catechism of Trent describes anointing the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, hands, loins, and feet. The source labels it a "modern innovation" not found in Scripture or early Church fathers.
The Sacrament of Holy Orders:
Early Church Structure: In the New Testament Church, only bishops and deacons are named as permanent officers, with "presbyter" and "bishop" designating the same position. Deacons cared for the poor and distributed elements at the Lord's Table. Over time, hierarchical positions emerged (metropolitans, patriarchs, archdeacons, deaconesses, sub-deacons, acolytes, exorcists, readers).
Cardinals: The role of cardinals evolved from chief clergy in Rome to having the exclusive right to elect the pope. They are now the "princes of the papal kingdom" and counselors to the Pope.
Council of Trent on Orders: Trent declared "orders" to be a sacrament, with seven orders, and affirmed that the Holy Spirit is given in ordination, impressing a "character" on the candidate, meaning a priest cannot become a layman again. The source challenges the idea that human hands can bestow the Holy Spirit.
Tonsure: The cutting of hair in the form of a crown, required for all ministers and priests, is claimed by the Church to be from apostolic tradition, in honor of Christ's crown of thorns. The Scottish clergy's different tonsure style was a point of contention with Romanists.
Insignia and Vestments: The ring (symbol of the bishop's marriage to the Church), crozier (shepherd's crook), mitre (two-pointed hat representing cloven tongues), and tiara (papal mitre with three crowns representing earthly, purgatorial, and heavenly power) are discussed as episcopal and papal insignia. Clerical garments (amice, alba, stole, maniple, chasuble) are also described.
Catholic Justification: The Council of Trent's decree on justification is described as "self-contradictory, gospel-denying, and detestable," emphasizing works and sacraments rather than faith alone.
Purgatory: The concept of purgatory, a place where souls are purified by fire after death, was "nowhere in the early Church". While prayers for the dead existed earlier, the idea of purification by fire emerged around the 6th century, influenced by Gregory the Great and later by "cunning fables" and even Mohammedan ideas of hell. The Council of Trent commands the faithful to believe in purgatory and to offer masses, prayers, and alms for the dead.
Indulgences: Initially, these were a remission of long Church penances. The doctrine of "works of supererogation" (merits of saints and Christ beyond what was needed for salvation, forming a "treasury" for the Church) is attributed to Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century, forming the "grand foundation of the system of indulgences". Popes Clement VI, John XXIII, and Leo X issued bulls offering indulgences for various acts, including fighting in crusades or contributing money. The infamous Tetzel, a Dominican friar and "indulgence commissioner," is described as a "man without shame, destitute of truth," who sold indulgences with extravagant claims, including for future sins and releasing souls from purgatory. The Council of Trent "decree[d] them wholesome".
Prayers to Saints and Mary; Image Worship:
Saints: The source asserts that the practice of praying to saints implies they perform acts of divinity, rather than merely interceding. It highlights cases where saints are asked to "perform the work himself as if he were a Deity".
Mary: Prayers to Mary often describe her as "Queen of the heavens," "Mother of Mercy," "advocate," "hope," and "refuge of sinners," and attribute to her power to deliver from hell, temptations, and grant grace. The Litany of Loreto, with its numerous invocations to Mary, is called "blasphemous in the highest degree" and "the most idolatrous prayer ever presented to a dead woman". The source suggests that Romanism, particularly in Italy, has elevated Mary to a quasi-divine status, almost adding a "fourth person in the Godhead". It notes that the Scriptures are "absolutely silent" about supplications to Mary, and that Christ Himself rebuked his mother for interfering with his ministry.
Images: The Second Council of Nice (787 AD) decreed that images of Christ, Mary, angels, and saints should be venerated, although this veneration is directed to the "prototypes" they represent. The source heavily criticizes this practice, calling it an "audacious usurpation" and noting that Catholic catechisms often omit or mutilate the Second Commandment (Exodus xx. 4, 5) which forbids graven images and their worship. An anecdote is shared of an Italian priest who was unaware of the Second Commandment in the Bible until shown it by a Protestant missionary.
III. Ecclesiastical Structures and Practices
The Council of Trent (1545-1563): This council is presented as the most important in the Roman Church.
Claims of Inspiration: The Council of Trent operated under the assumption that it was "lawfully assembled, in the Holy Spirit," making its decrees infallible, akin to the inspired apostles. However, the source presents criticisms, including one from a Catholic who suggested the Holy Spirit was sent in a "postilion's cloak-bag" and couldn't arrive during floods.
Composition and Control: Paul III summoned various ecclesiastics and secular rulers (or their representatives). Protestants refused to attend due to demands like the release of bishops from their oath to the pope and allowing them to vote. The council was largely controlled by the Pope through his legates and Italian bishops, who were "mere creatures of the pope". Bishops were bound by an oath to obey the Pope, and discussions required his approval. "Sacred bribes and holy jesters" were used to silence opposition. The presence of "hungry and needy bishops" (often young titular prelates) who voted as the Pope pleased is noted.
Decrees: Trent gave its current form to Catholic doctrines and usages. It affirmed unwritten traditions and Apocrypha as equal in authority to Scripture.
The Vatican Council (1870) and Infallibility: The source details the internal struggles and suppression of discussion surrounding the dogma of papal infallibility. Pope Honorius and Vigilius are cited as historical examples of popes who "fell from the faith" or took contradictory stances, challenging the idea of papal infallibility. The decree, issued on July 18, 1870, declares the Pope infallible when speaking ex cathedra on faith or morals, making his definitions irreformable "from themselves, and not from the consent of the Church". This dogma is seen as intending to "coerce the minds of men" into submission to all papal pronouncements on religion, morals, politics, and social science.
Freedom of the Press: The source states that Protestants have "sublime confidence in truth" and fearlessness regarding error. In contrast, the Council of Trent legislated against the freedom of the press, creating "The Business of the Books, Censures, and Index". Ten rules were framed, requiring examination and approval of all printed and even manuscript works by bishops or inquisitors, with severe penalties for non-compliance, including excommunication. This is seen as a tool to control thought and restore "the blindness of the dark ages".
Public Education: The author asserts that "Rome [is] no friend of Education". Examples from Mexico, Spain, Ireland, and Rome are given where the Catholic Church sought to control all schools or opposed efforts at non-sectarian education. The Church's demand for a "fair division of the school fund" is presented as a tactic to denounce non-religious public schools as "GODLESS SCHOOLS" after removing the Bible from them.
Latin in the Catholic Church: It is noted that the word "Latin" (Lateinos) contains the "number of the beast" (666). Pope Vitalian (A.D. 666) was the first to ordain public worship in Latin. The Council of Trent decreed that the mass, the principal service, "should be celebrated in Latin" and not the vulgar tongue, regardless of location.
Sincerity of Catholic Priests: While some Protestants perceive priests as hypocrites, the author suggests their training leads them to genuinely believe Protestants are "enemies of truth" due to a lack of Bible knowledge and unquestioning upbringing.
No Salvation for Protestants: The bull "In Coena Domini," ratified by over twenty popes, excommunicates and curses all Hussites, Wycliffites, Lutherans, Calvinists, and other "heretics," along with their defenders and those who read their books. The Creed of Pope Pius IV, binding on all Catholic clergy, states that "without which [the Catholic faith] no one can be saved". This is presented as an "unquestionable part of papal doctrine".
IV. Monastic Orders and the Inquisition
Monastic Institutions: The source identifies Antony the Great, Benedict of Nursia, St. Dominic, and St. Francis as the four great founders of monastic institutions. Antony initiated the solitary life. Benedict provided a structured "Rule" for monks emphasizing labor, study, and a communal life.
The Jesuits: This order, founded by Ignatius Loyola (A.D. 1491), is described as a "small and yet so much dreaded" body. Loyola, wounded in battle, was converted and retired to a cave where he composed "Spiritual Exercises," a work credited with converting many. The Jesuits took a vow of obedience to the Pope, pledging to go wherever he sent them without remuneration. Their motto, "Ad majorem Gloriam Dei" (for the greater glory of God), is deemed a "cloak to conceal the thoughts of men". The order has a strict hierarchical structure (novices, scholars, coadjutors, professed, and the General). Their laws mandate compulsory confession where secrets can be reported to superiors, creating a "perfect system of discovering the secrets of the whole order". Every Jesuit is bound to report on others, creating a "detective system". Their obedience is absolute, viewing the superior's will as God's. They are noted for their "wicked maxims" (e.g., justifying killing for honor, as quoted by Pascal) and "insinuating ways," adapting to people to achieve their goals. They were known for being "extensive merchants". Clement XIV suppressed the Jesuits in 1773, believing it would be his death, and he indeed died of poison. Pius VII reestablished the order in 1814.
The Inquisition: The Spanish Inquisition, sanctioned by Sixtus IV, is described as the "most formidable and WICKED TRIBUNAL that ever terrified mankind". Its laws allowed for trying any ecclesiastic and demanded secrecy from officers and prisoners. The accused never saw their accusers or witnesses and were compelled to confess their sins, often under torture (e.g., strappado, fire). Even dead heretics could be tried, with their bodies exhumed and burned, and property confiscated. Every Catholic was bound to accuse a heretic, breaking familial ties. The "Auto da Fe" (Act of Faith) was a public spectacle of torture and burning, where victims were offered strangulation if they died in the Catholic faith, but burned alive if they persisted in other beliefs. Dr. Llorente, former secretary of the Inquisition, stated that no historian's descriptions of its tortures could be accused of exaggeration. Pius IX later canonized an inquisitor, Pedro de Arbues, in 1867.
V. Relics and Miracles
The source lists numerous relics and miracles, often with an implied skepticism or a focus on their use to support Church authority:
Relics: The wood of the cross was said to be found by Helena and distributed widely. Other relics included the lance that pierced Christ's side, garments of the Virgin Mary, and body parts of saints like John the Baptist and King Edmund. The Second Council of Nice decreed that churches must have martyr relics, with bishops who consecrate churches without them being deposed.
Miracles: Various miracles attributed to saints and figures are recounted, such as St. Donatus killing a dragon, St. Spyridion turning a snake into gold, St. James of Nisibis bringing flies against besiegers, and King Edmund's head speaking after decapitation. These accounts emphasize the supernatural power ascribed to saints within the Catholic system.
VI. Notable Individuals and Literary Context
The source acknowledges prominent figures, even those within the Roman Catholic Church, who were deemed "worthy of all honor" despite the author's critical stance on the institution itself. These include Bede, Charlemagne, the barons who secured Magna Charta, Roger Bacon, Matthew Paris, William Tell, Sir William Wallace, Columbus, John Gutenberg, and Charles Carroll of Carrollton. The book also lists many early Church Fathers and scholars (e.g., Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, Chrysostom, Hilary, Tertullian, Origen, Du Pin, Father Paul Sarpi, Labbe and Cossart) as authorities, citing their original language texts where relevant.
This comprehensive historical sketch aims to present the Papal System as a departure from "ancient Christianity" and to expose its methods of asserting spiritual and temporal power, particularly through its doctrines, sacraments, and historical interactions with secular authority.
Additional Questions
When was the Fourth Lateran Council?
The Fourth Lateran Council was assembled in A.D. 1215. This council was convened by Pope Innocent III., who was a man of distinguished talents.
The main purpose for Innocent III. summoning this council was to establish a number of superstitions. During this council, a significant decree was passed, which for the first time, gave transubstantiation a legal place in the Catholic Church. This doctrine asserts that in the sacrament of the altar, the body and blood of Jesus Christ are truly contained under the species of bread and wine, which are transubstantiated through divine power.
Additionally, the twenty-first canon of the Fourth Lateran Council, also issued in A.D. 1215, established auricular confession as a requirement by Romish law for the first time in papal history. This statute mandates that every faithful person of both sexes, after reaching years of discretion, must confess all their sins at least once a year to their own priest and strive to perform the imposed penance. They are also required to partake reverently of the sacrament of the eucharist at least at Easter, unless advised otherwise by their priest for a reasonable cause. Failure to comply would result in being barred from entering the church while living and deprived of Christian burial after death. This decree also specified that if one wished to confess to a foreign priest, they must first obtain a license from their own priest, as otherwise the foreign priest would not be able to bind or loose them.
This period, A.D. 1215, is identified as the "darkest age of the last two thousand years in culture and morals," and it is fittingly noted as the birth period for transubstantiation, the confessional, and the inquisition.
Who presided over the Council of Nice?
The Council of Nice, which assembled in A.D. 325, was primarily managed by Emperor Constantine. While several individuals are said to have occupied the position of president, Constantine himself delivered exhortations, heard propositions with patience, reasoned with attendees, and influenced the assembly to reach a unified mind on disputed questions, effectively becoming the ruler of the council and the common father of Christendom for the time. He also summoned its members, who came at his command, not at the voice of any ecclesiastic.
The Roman pontiff was not present at any of its meetings and was represented by two presbyters, Vito and Vicentius, who took no remarkable part in the proceedings.
Some sources suggest different presiding figures:
According to Theodoret, "the great Eustathius, bishop of Antioch," spoke first when Constantine entered the chamber and was evidently the leader of the council.
Du Pin, whose learning is universally recognized, stated that it is "very probable that it was Hosius who held the chief place in the Council of Nice in his own name". This is because Hosius had already taken cognizance of the Arian controversy and was highly esteemed by the Emperor. Hosius, Bishop of Cordova in Spain, was considered by many to be "the leading bishop of the Christian world" at that time, and Athanasius remarked that "What council can be mentioned in which he, did not preside, and convince all present by the power of his reasoning?". Hosius also presided at the Council of Sardica.
The sources emphasize that the Roman Bishop had no more power in a general council than other bishops for seven centuries of the Christian era. The Council of Nice itself gave "no claim whatever to the Bishops of Rome to supremacy over the churches of Christendom". His delegates had no important place. Furthermore, the council confirmed its own decrees, and no one imagined that the Roman Bishop's confirmation was essential to their validity.The Fourth Lateran Council was assembled in A.D. 1215.
This council was convened by Pope Innocent III. Innocent III, described as a man of "distinguished talents," summoned this council with the main purpose of establishing a number of superstitions.
During this council, a significant decree was passed that, for the first time, gave transubstantiation a legal place in the Catholic Church. This doctrine asserts that in the sacrament of the altar, the body and blood of Jesus Christ are truly contained under the species of bread and wine, which are transubstantiated through divine power. The "wheaten god" of Corpus Christi day was adopted into the Church in A.D. 1215 by Innocent III and the Fourth Council of the Lateran.
Additionally, the twenty-first canon of the Fourth Lateran Council, also issued in A.D. 1215, established auricular confession as a requirement by Romish law for the first time in papal history. This statute mandates that every faithful person of both sexes, after reaching years of discretion, must confess all their sins at least once a year to their own priest and strive to perform the imposed penance. They are also required to partake reverently of the sacrament of the eucharist at least at Easter, unless advised otherwise by their priest for a reasonable cause. Failure to comply would result in being barred from entering the church while living and deprived of Christian burial after death. This decree also specified that if one wished to confess to a foreign priest for a just cause, they must first obtain a license from their own priest, as otherwise the foreign priest would not be able to bind or loose them.
The period of A.D. 1215 is identified as the "darkest age of the last two thousand years in culture and morals" and is noted as the birth period for transubstantiation, the confessional, and the inquisition.
How did the early Christian Church's structure and practices evolve, particularly regarding episcopal authority and papal supremacy?
The early Christian Church's structure and practices underwent significant evolution, particularly concerning episcopal authority and the eventual rise of papal supremacy.
I. Early Church Structure: Bishops and Presbyters Initially, in the early churches, bishops and presbyters were considered the same officers. The New Testament, for instance, in Acts xx. 17 and 28, refers to "elders" (presbyters) as "overseers" (bishops), indicating they were the same. Similarly, in Titus i. 5 and 7, Paul's instructions for ordaining "elders" and referring to them as "bishop" further support this. Peter's Epistle, v. 1, 2, also shows elders "taking the oversight" (episcopising), reinforcing the idea that elders were bishops.
Early Church fathers like Tertullian (end of second century) noted that the bishop was the "highest priest" but stated his authority in administering baptism was "because of the honor of the church," not a divine mandate, implying he was the first presbyter. Irenaeus also referred to a "succession of presbyters" guarding apostolical doctrine, and used "bishop" and "presbyter" interchangeably for the same clergyman. Jerome, a prominent scholar of the fourth century, explicitly stated that bishops were superior to presbyters more "from custom of the church" than from "the Lord's setting it in order". He even recounted that in Alexandria, presbyters always elected one of themselves as bishop, treating the role as a presidency among equals. Ambrose and Augustine similarly viewed the bishop as the "first priest" or "highest priest" whose superior position rested on "usage of the Church of Rome," not divine authority. Chrysostom also noted that "between a bishop and a priest there is, in a manner, no difference".
The shift towards a more defined episcopal structure began with the "factiousness of church members" which led to a bishop being appointed as a permanent president of the College of Presbyters to secure peace and repress anarchy. By the end of the second century, a modified episcopacy was common, though presbyters retained many rights for a long time.
II. Episcopal Authority and the Equality of Bishops When episcopal government was established, and for centuries thereafter, the accepted theory was that all bishops were equal, not in wealth or honor, but in their vote in a general council and in the common duties of the episcopal office. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, asserted that "no one of us makes himself a bishop of bishops" and that "every bishop... hath his own freedom, and can no more be judged by another, than he himself can judge another". He even openly rebuked Pope Stephen for meddling in the affairs of Spanish bishops, treating Stephen as an equal. Augustine also denounced appeals from African synods to outside authorities, gently branding Pope Melchiades as a "usurper" for his interference.
Jerome also maintained the equality of all bishops, regardless of their see, stating that "wherever a bishop may be, whether at Rome or at Eugubium... he is of the same worth, and of the same priesthood". Gregory the Great, a Roman Pontiff himself, vehemently denounced the title of "Universal Bishop" when applied to the Patriarch of Constantinople, stating, "I confidently say that whosoever calls himself universal bishop, or desires to be so called, does in his elation forerun Antichrist". This clearly indicates that, in his view, no prelate had divine authority to be master over other bishops.
III. Papal Supremacy: From No Jurisdiction to Universal Dominion For the first seven centuries of the Christian era, the Bishops of Rome had no dominion over the universal Church. This was consistently rejected by ancient British, Irish, and Scotch Churches, which maintained independence from Rome for centuries. The great councils of the first seven centuries also repudiated papal jurisdiction.
Council of Nice (A.D. 325): Emperor Constantine managed the council, not the Roman Pontiff. The Roman Pontiff was not present and his delegates took no remarkable part. The sixth canon of Nice explicitly gave the same authority to the bishops of Alexandria and Antioch over their provinces as the Bishop of Rome enjoyed in his see, placing him on a level with Eastern bishops. The council's decrees were confirmed by Constantine, not by the Roman Bishop.
Council of Sardica (A.D. 345/347): This council was convoked by emperors. Though it introduced a slender jurisdiction for the Bishop of Rome to order new trials in certain cases, it did not authorize him to judge ecclesiastics outside his diocese. This council's decrees were never received in the East or Africa and were often cited by Popes falsely under the name of the Council of Nice to gain authority.
Council of Constantinople (A.D. 381): Summoned by Emperor Theodosius. Its principal act was to place the See of Constantinople next in dignity to Rome, explicitly stating the reason was because Constantinople was "new Rome" (the new imperial capital), implying Rome's dignity stemmed from its imperial city status, not Peter's succession. The Roman pontiff had nothing to do with calling or presiding over this council.
Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451): Summoned by Emperor Marcian. It was managed by the emperor's commissioned officers. Its 9th canon, dealing with appeals, did not include Rome as a court of appeal, instead allowing access to the "throne of the imperial Constantinople". Most importantly, the 28th canon explicitly stated that the honor paid to the Bishop of Rome was "because it was the imperial city," not because Peter was first bishop or the pope was Christ's vicar.
IV. Means by which Papal Sovereignty Succeeded The emergence of papal sovereignty, particularly over the churches, was a "wonder of the ages". This spiritual usurpation formed the basis for the popes' secular throne. The great principle used to persuade churches was that Christ had built His Church on Peter and made him its master by giving him the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven.
"Thou art Peter..." Interpretation: This doctrine, interpreting Peter as the rock and keyholder, was prominently announced for the first time by Pope Leo the Great's representatives at the Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451). While initially rejected or merely understood as Peter having published the same truths as Leo, this concept gradually gained traction. St. Peter became a figure of immense influence, with gifts and insults to Rome equated to those to St. Peter, and his "protection" and "favor" were sought.
Imperial Sanction: In A.D. 609, Boniface obtained from the Emperor Phocas the decree that the Roman Church should be "head and mistress of all churches," repealing Constantinople's claim to that title. This imperial decree significantly aided the erection of papal spiritual tyranny.
Mohammedan Victories: The conquests of the Saracens in the East (7th century) greatly weakened and almost annihilated the old patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, and left Constantinople tottering. This removed significant rivals to the Pope's authority, as these Eastern churches, stripped of their power and flock, had "no heart for controversy".
Papal Missions: The Roman Church under Gregory the Great embarked on extensive missions, notably converting the Anglo-Saxons (A.D. 596) and Germans, binding these new churches strongly to Rome's supremacy. These missions provided Rome with its "most obedient subjects, and the greatest number of them".
Interference in Troubles: Popes consistently intervened in disputes among bishops and between kings and their subjects. Their readiness to examine appeals from troubled bishops and their common practice of deciding in favor of the first applicant greatly increased their spiritual power. A key example is Pope Zachary's decision to depose Childeric and confer the French throne on Pepin (8th century), which placed the "greatest influences and powers of the age" at the Pope's service.
The Pallium: This honorary garment, initially a token of papal regard, evolved into an indispensable title for the episcopal office. By controlling its bestowal, the Pope acquired "unlimited control over the whole episcopacy and priesthood".
Forged Documents: Forgeries played a significant role. The "Donation of Constantine," a baseless fable claiming Constantine bestowed sovereignty of Italy and western provinces on the Pope, was used for centuries to support papal temporal and spiritual dominion. Similarly, the Isidorean Decretals (circa A.D. 850), a collection of largely unknown papal letters, were created to support papal claims such as the Pope's authority over the keys (opening/shutting heaven) and the exclusive right to convene councils. These forgeries effectively "abolished the whole liberties of the churches in nearly every country".
The Inquisition: Established around A.D. 1215, the Inquisition, a "wicked tribunal," became a tool to secure papal ascendancy, coercing obedience through terror and physical torment.
V. Key Practices Solidified by Papal Authority The Fourth Lateran Council (A.D. 1215), convened by Pope Innocent III., marked a crucial point in formalizing certain practices:
Transubstantiation: This council, for the first time, gave transubstantiation a legal place in the Catholic Church. This doctrine asserted that the bread and wine in the Eucharist are truly transformed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ.
Auricular Confession: The twenty-first canon of the Fourth Lateran Council (A.D. 1215) established auricular confession as a requirement by Romish law for the first time in papal history. This mandated that every faithful person confess sins at least once a year to their priest and partake in the Eucharist at Easter, under pain of being barred from church and Christian burial. The sources explicitly state that secret confessions to a priest were "entirely unknown in the early Churches" and had no legal life in the Catholic Church before 1215.
This period of A.D. 1215 is described as the "darkest age of the last two thousand years in culture and morals," notably giving birth to transubstantiation, the confessional, and the inquisition. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) further solidified and codified these doctrines and practices, giving them their "present cast" in the Catholic Church.
In summary, the early Christian Church began with a more egalitarian structure, with bishops and presbyters holding largely equal status. Episcopal authority emerged gradually, and papal supremacy developed over many centuries through a combination of theological claims (Peter's succession), political maneuvering, strategic missionary efforts, opportunistic interventions in secular affairs, widespread forgeries, and the imposition of coercive institutions like the Inquisition and mandatory practices like auricular confession and transubstantiation. This evolution culminated in the comprehensive papal system recognized today.
How did papal supremacy develop?
The early Christian Church's structure underwent a profound evolution from a more egalitarian model to the centralized authority of papal supremacy, a process that unfolded over many centuries and involved a combination of theological claims, political maneuvers, strategic actions, and the use of forged documents.
I. Initial Structure: Equality of Bishops and Presbyters
In the earliest churches, bishops and presbyters were considered the same officers. Scriptural passages in Acts xx. 17 and 28 refer to "elders" (presbyters) as "overseers" (bishops), and Titus i. 5 and 7 show Paul's instructions to ordain "elders" while calling them "bishop". Peter's Epistle, v. 1, 2, also shows elders "taking the oversight" (episcopising).
Early Church fathers corroborated this:
Tertullian (late 2nd century) referred to the bishop as the "highest priest" but noted his authority in administering baptism was for "the honor of the church," not a divine mandate, implying he was the first among presbyters.
Irenaeus used "bishop" and "presbyter" interchangeably for the same clergyman, referring to a "succession of presbyters" guarding apostolical doctrine.
Jerome (4th century) explicitly stated that bishops were superior to presbyters more "from custom of the church" than from "the Lord's setting it in order". He noted that in Alexandria, presbyters always elected one of themselves as bishop, treating the role as a presidency among equals.
Ambrose and Augustine similarly viewed the bishop as the "first priest" or "highest priest" whose superior position rested on "usage of the Church of Rome," not divine authority.
Chrysostom also stated that "between a bishop and a priest there is, in a manner, no difference".
The shift towards a more defined episcopal structure began due to "factiousness of church members," leading to a bishop being appointed as a permanent president of the College of Presbyters to ensure peace. Even then, presbyters retained many rights for a long time.
II. Episcopal Authority and the Equality of Bishops
For centuries after the establishment of episcopal government, the prevailing theory was that all bishops were equal in their vote in a general council and in the common duties of their office.
Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, asserted that "no one of us makes himself a bishop of bishops" and that "every bishop... hath his own freedom, and can no more be judged by another, than he himself can judge another". He openly rebuked Pope Stephen for interference, treating him as an equal.
Augustine denounced appeals from African synods to outside authorities, gently branding Pope Melchiades as a "usurper" for his interference.
Jerome maintained the equality of all bishops regardless of their see, stating that "wherever a bishop may be, whether at Rome or at Eugubium... he is of the same worth, and of the same priesthood".
Gregory the Great, a Roman Pontiff himself, vehemently denounced the title of "Universal Bishop" when applied to the Patriarch of Constantinople, stating, "I confidently say that whosoever calls himself universal bishop, or desires to be so called, does in his elation forerun Antichrist". This demonstrated that, in his view, no prelate had divine authority to be master over other bishops.
III. Papal Supremacy: From No Jurisdiction to Universal Dominion
For the first seven centuries, the Bishops of Rome had no dominion over the universal Church. Ancient British, Irish, and Scotch Churches maintained independence from Rome for centuries. Great councils of the first seven centuries also repudiated papal jurisdiction.
Council of Nice (A.D. 325): Called by Emperor Constantine, not the Roman Pontiff, whose delegates played no remarkable part. The sixth canon of Nice explicitly gave the same authority to the bishops of Alexandria and Antioch over their provinces as the Bishop of Rome enjoyed in his see, placing him on a level with Eastern bishops.
Council of Sardica (A.D. 345/347): Convoked by emperors, it introduced a "slender jurisdiction" for the Bishop of Rome to order new trials in certain cases, but did not authorize him to judge ecclesiastics outside his diocese. Its decrees were never received in the East or Africa and were often falsely cited by Popes under the name of Nice to gain authority.
Council of Constantinople (A.D. 381): Summoned by Emperor Theodosius. Its principal act was to place the See of Constantinople next in dignity to Rome, explicitly stating the reason was because Constantinople was "new Rome" (the new imperial capital), implying Rome's dignity stemmed from its imperial city status, not Peter's succession.
Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451): Summoned by Emperor Marcian. Its 9th canon, dealing with appeals, did not include Rome as a court of appeal, allowing access instead to the "throne of the imperial Constantinople". The 28th canon explicitly stated that the honor paid to the Bishop of Rome was "because it was the imperial city," not because Peter was first bishop or the pope was Christ's vicar.
IV. Means by which Papal Sovereignty Succeeded
The emergence of papal sovereignty, particularly over the churches, was a "wonder of the ages". The great principle used to persuade churches was that Christ had built His Church on Peter and made him its master by giving him the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven.
"Thou art Peter..." Interpretation: This doctrine, interpreting Peter as the rock and keyholder, was prominently announced for the first time by Pope Leo the Great's representatives at the Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451). While initially rejected or merely understood as Peter having published the same truths as Leo, this concept gradually gained traction. St. Peter became a figure of immense influence, with gifts and insults to Rome equated to those to St. Peter, and his "protection" and "favor" were sought. This interpretation was used by Romanists at the Council of Whitby (A.D. 664) to persuade King Oswy to adopt Roman customs. Peter was "turned into a demon or a deity" to frighten or favor Christians. The "keys" were understood to confer absolute mastery over the Church.
Imperial Sanction: In A.D. 609, Boniface obtained from the Emperor Phocas the decree that the Roman Church should be "head and mistress of all churches," repealing Constantinople's claim to that title. This imperial decree significantly aided the erection of papal spiritual tyranny.
Mohammedan Victories: The conquests of the Saracens in the East (7th century) greatly weakened and almost annihilated the old patriarchates of Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria, and left Constantinople tottering. This removed significant rivals to the Pope's authority, as these Eastern churches, stripped of their power and flock, had "no heart for controversy".
Papal Missions: The Roman Church under Gregory the Great embarked on extensive missions, notably converting the Anglo-Saxons (A.D. 596) and Germans. These missions bound new churches strongly to Rome's supremacy, providing Rome with its "most obedient subjects, and the greatest number of them".
Interference in Troubles: Popes consistently intervened in disputes among bishops and between kings and their subjects. Their readiness to examine appeals from troubled bishops and their common practice of deciding in favor of the first applicant greatly increased their spiritual power. A key example is Pope Zachary's decision to depose Childeric and confer the French throne on Pepin (8th century), which placed the "greatest influences and powers of the age" at the Pope's service.
The Pallium: This honorary garment, initially a token of papal regard, evolved into an indispensable title for the episcopal office. By controlling its bestowal, the Pope acquired "unlimited control over the whole episcopacy and priesthood".
Purgatory: As faith in this doctrine became prevalent from the end of the seventh century, the power of the clergy grew. Men, terrified of torments, left money for masses and gave "real estate in large quantities" to the Church, leading to the Church becoming the "greatest landlord in the world". The Roman bishop stood at the head of the "masters of purgatory," increasing his influence as dying individuals and ambitious people sought his "good will".
Benefits Conferred: Popes used the clergy and monks to show kindness to the masses, elevating commoners to bishops, mediating conflicts, and opposing slavery. Monks, directly dependent on the pontiffs, were "schoolmasters of Europe" and consistently extolled the Pope, portraying him as "the purest and mightiest of mortals" and "special favorite of God".
Forged Documents: Forgeries played a significant role.
The "Donation of Constantine" was a fable claiming Constantine bestowed sovereignty of Italy and western provinces on the Pope. This document, though a "base forgery," was used for centuries to support papal temporal and spiritual dominion.
The Isidorean Decretals (circa A.D. 850) were a collection of largely unknown papal letters created to support papal claims such as the Pope's authority over the keys and the exclusive right to convene councils. These forgeries effectively "abolished the whole liberties of the churches in nearly every country".
The Inquisition: Established around A.D. 1215 under Innocent III., this "wicked tribunal" became a tool to secure papal ascendancy, coercing obedience through terror and physical torment.
Oaths of Obedience: Oaths binding bishops to the pope and his interests aided in securing his spiritual empire. Bishops at the Council of Trent, for example, took an oath of "true faith to St. Peter, and to the holy apostolic Roman Church, to my lord the Pope N. and his successors," pledging to defend the papacy and not reveal damaging counsel.
The Dogma of Infallibility (1870): This was the culmination, declaring the Pope, when speaking ex cathedra on faith or morals, to be "altogether infallible". This dogma effectively made the Pope the sole, supreme authority, destroying the legislative power of councils and subordinating all other clergy.
V. Key Practices Solidified by Papal Authority
Transubstantiation: The Fourth Lateran Council (A.D. 1215), convened by Pope Innocent III., marked a crucial point in formalizing this doctrine. It was the first time transubstantiation was given a legal place in the Catholic Church, asserting that the bread and wine in the Eucharist are truly transformed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ. The Council of Trent (1545-1563) later declared the host an atoning sacrifice.
Auricular Confession: The twenty-first canon of the Fourth Lateran Council (A.D. 1215) established auricular confession as a requirement by Romish law for the first time in papal history. This mandated that every faithful person confess sins at least once a year to their priest and partake in the Eucharist at Easter. Secret confessions to a priest were "entirely unknown in the early Churches" and had no legal life in the Catholic Church before 1215.
Clerical Celibacy: While debates and informal practices existed earlier, Gregory VII. (11th century) vigorously attacked clerical marriage and sought to enforce celibacy, using severe threats and even authorizing the laity to withhold tithes from married priests. The Council of Trent continued and completed this work, despite strong opposition from various European clergy and rulers.
This comprehensive evolution transformed the early Christian Church from a decentralized network of communities to a highly centralized system under the absolute authority of the Roman Pontiff.
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